Functional skills gap: The role of artificial intelligence and teachers' digital competence in South Pakistani Islamic schools
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35719/educare.v6i2.379Keywords:
Gender Differences, Digital Competency, AI Usage, Functional Skills, Islamic EducationAbstract
The gap in teachers' functional skills in utilizing artificial intelligence and digital competencies remains a major issue in Islamic schools in Southern Pakistan. Gender variations show differences in technological adaptation abilities, so that AI integration has not had an equal impact on improving functional pedagogical practices. This study aims to analyze the influence of digital competence and AI use on the functional skills of Islamic school teachers in Southern Pakistan and to examine the moderating role of gender in this relationship. This quantitative research with a cross-sectional survey design involved 450 Islamic school teachers in South Punjab using a Likert scale questionnaire to analyze the relationship between digital competence, AI use, and functional skills, as well as to identify gender-based differences in technology integration. This study concludes that the integration of AI and digital competence in Islamic education in Southern Pakistan is influenced by gender factors, with female teachers being more effective at converting AI into functional teaching skills. These findings call for gender-sensitive, inclusive, and sustainable professional development policies. This research contributes by strengthening empirical evidence of the role of gender in AI integration, enriching gender-perspective organizational theory, and offering a conceptual basis for gender-sensitive professional development policies for Islamic teachers.
References
Adewale, M. D., Azeta, A., Abayomi-Alli, A., & Sambo-Magaji, A. (2024). Impact of artificial intelligence adoption on students’ academic performance in open and distance learning: A systematic literature review. Heliyon, 10(22), e40025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40025
Aditya, T., Ningrum, S., Nurasa, H., & Irawati, I. (2023). Community needs for the digital divide on the smart city policy. Heliyon, 9(8), e18932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18932
Alanazi, M., Soh, B., Samra, H., & Li, A. (2025). The Influence of Artificial Intelligence Tools on Learning Outcomes in Computer Programming: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Computers, 14(5), 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14050185
Ali, D. M. J. (2025). A critical analysis of the impact of artificial intelligence on Oman’s educational sector: Opportunities, challenges, and future implications. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(3S), 3485–3498. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0256
Alieto, E., Abequibel-Encarnacion, B., Estigoy, E., Balasa, K., Eijansantos, A., & Torres-Toukoumidis, A. (2024). Teaching inside a digital classroom: A quantitative analysis of attitude, technological competence and access among teachers across subject disciplines. Heliyon, 10(2), e24282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24282
Almazroa, H., & Alotaibi, W. (2023). Teaching 21st Century Skills: Understanding the depth and width of the challenges to shape proactive teacher education programmes. Sustainability, 15(9), 7365. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097365
Antonietti, C., Cattaneo, A., & Amenduni, F. (2022). Can teachers’ digital competence influence technology acceptance in vocational education? Computers in Human Behavior, 132, 107266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107266
Brocca, N. (2024). Adoption of new technologies in pre-service teachers: The case of interaction-enhancing videos. Teaching and Teacher Education, 138, 104427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104427
Capili B. (2021). Cross-sectional studies. The American journal of nursing, 121(10), 59–62. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000794280.73744.fe
Clark-Saboda, J. L., & Lemke, M. (2023). Revisiting Acker’s gendered organizational theory: What women overcome to stay in the superintendency. Frontiers in Education, 8, 1160225. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1160225
Demissie, E. B., Labiso, T. O., & Thuo, M. W. (2022). Teachers’ digital competencies and technology integration in education: Insights from secondary schools in Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 6(1), 100355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100355
Ding, A.-C. E., Shi, L., Yang, H., & Choi, I. (2024). Enhancing teacher AI literacy and integration through different types of cases in teacher professional development. Computers and Education Open, 6, 100178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100178
Dringó-Horváth, I., Rajki, Z., & T. Nagy, J. (2025). University Teachers’ Digital Competence and AI Literacy: Moderating Role of Gender, Age, Experience, and Discipline. Education Sciences, 15(7), 868. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070868
Ely, R. J., & Meyerson, D. E. (2000). Theories of gender in organizations: A new approach to organizational analysis and change. Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, 103–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-3085(00)22004-2
Gkrimpizi, T., Peristeras, V., & Magnisalis, I. (2023). Classification of barriers to digital transformation in higher education institutions: Systematic literature review. Education Sciences, 13(7), 746. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070746
Hämäläinen, R., Nissinen, K., Mannonen, J., Lämsä, J., Leino, K., & Taajamo, M. (2021). Understanding teaching professionals’ digital competence: What do PIAAC and TALIS reveal about technology-related skills, attitudes, and knowledge? Computers in Human Behavior, 117, 106672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106672
Khalil, H. ., & Alsenaidi, S. (2024). Teachers’ digital competencies for effective AI integration in higher education in Oman. Journal of Education and E-Learning Research, 11(4), 698–707. https://doi.org/10.20448/jeelr.v11i4.6097
Kim, K., & Kwon, K. (2023). Exploring the AI competencies of elementary school teachers in South Korea. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 4, 100137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100137
Kmetty, Z., & Stefkovics, Á. (2022). Assessing the effect of questionnaire design on unit and item-nonresponse: evidence from an online experiment. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 25(5), 659–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2021.1929714
Kotronoulas, G., Miguel, S., Dowling, M., Fernández-Ortega, P., Colomer-Lahiguera, S., Bağçivan, G., Pape, E., Drury, A., Semple, C., Dieperink, K. B., & Papadopoulou, C. (2023). An overview of the fundamentals of data management, analysis, and interpretation in quantitative research. Seminars in Oncology Nursing, 39(2), 151398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soncn.2023.151398
Kruskopf, M., Abdulhamed, R., Ranta, M., Lammassaari, H., & Lonka, K. (2024). Future teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching practical and algorithmic ICT competencies: Does background matter? Teaching and Teacher Education, 144, e104574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104574
Langelaan, B. N., Gaikhorst, L., Smets, W., & Oostdam, R. J. (2024). Differentiating instruction: Understanding the key elements for successful teacher preparation and development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 140, 104464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104464
Lin, H., & Chen, Q. (2024). Artificial intelligence (AI) -integrated educational applications and college students' creativity and academic emotions: students and teachers' perceptions and attitudes. BMC psychology, 12(1), 487. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01979-0
Lohr, A., Sailer, M., Stadler, M., & Fischer, F. (2024). Digital learning in schools: Which skills do teachers need, and who should bring their own devices? Teaching and Teacher Education, 152, 104788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104788
Miralles-Cardona, C., Chiner, E., Tichá, R., Esteve-Faubel, J. M., Abery, B. H., & Sanhueza-Henríquez, S. V. (2025). Teacher Educators’ Perceptions of Factors Influencing Gender Mainstreaming Implementation in University Teaching 30 Years after Beijing. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 25(1), 29-44. https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v25i1.1005
Muttaqin, I. (2022). Necessary to increase teacher competency in facing the Artificial Intelligence era. Al-Hayat: Journal of Islamic Education, 6(2), 549–559. https://doi.org/10.35723/ajie.v6i2.460
Pérez-Guerrero, E. E., Guillén-Medina, M. R., Márquez-Sandoval, F., Vera-Cruz, J. M., Gallegos-Arreola, M. P., Rico-Méndez, M. A., Aguilar-Velázquez, J. A., & Gutiérrez-Hurtado, I. A. (2024). Methodological and statistical considerations for cross-sectional, case–control, and cohort studies. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(14), 4005. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13144005
Pozas, M., Letzel-Alt, V., & Schwab, S. (2023). The effects of differentiated instruction on teachers’ stress and job satisfaction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 122, 103962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103962
Rahimi, H., Hejazi, S. Y., Lou, N. M., & Heidarzadeh, M. (2024). Are teachers with better quality of work life more innovative? The mediating roles of psychological empowerment and teaching mindsets. Acta Psychologica, 247, 104315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104315
Saifuddin, M. F. I., Mansor, W., Ismail Khan, Z., Mahmood, M. K. A., Bujang, A., & Haddadi, K. (2024). Pearson correlation and multiple correlation analyses of the animal fat S-parameter. TEM Journal, 13(1), 155–160. https://doi.org/10.18421/TEM131-15
Sari, G. I., Winasis, S., Pratiwi, I., Nuryanto, U. W., & Basrowi. (2024). Strengthening digital literacy in Indonesia: Collaboration, innovation, and sustainability education. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, 101100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101100
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., Howard, S. K., & Tondeur, J. (2023). Gender divides in teachers’ readiness for online teaching and learning in higher education: Do women and men consider themselves equally prepared? Computers & Education, 199, 104774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104774
Schmid, M., Brianza, E., & Petko, D. (2021). Self-reported technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) of pre-service teachers in relation to digital technology use in lesson plans. Computers in Human Behavior, 115, 106586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106586
Shahi, R., & Chaudhary, B. P. (2025). Digital transformation: Adoption of information technology systems in higher education institutions of Nepal. Cogent Business & Management, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2025.2524601
Sibley, L., Lachner, A., Plicht, C., Fabian, A., Backfisch, I., Scheiter, K., & Bohl, T. (2024). Feasibility of adaptive teaching with technology: Which implementation conditions matter? Computers & Education, 219, 105108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105108
Spante, M., Hashemi, S. S., Lundin, M., & Algers, A. (2018). Digital competence and digital literacy in higher education research: Systematic review of concept use. Cogent Education, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1519143
Sterrantino, A. F. (2024). Observational studies: Practical tips for avoiding common statistical pitfalls. The Lancet Regional Health-Southeast Asia, 25, 100415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lansea.2024.100415
Tan, X., Cheng, G., & Ling, M. H. (2025). Artificial intelligence in teaching and teacher professional development: A systematic review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 8, 100355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100355
Tjahjono, B., Hermawan, D., Millah, S., & Evans, R. (2025). Bridging the skills gap curriculum transformation for automation industries and the role of digital technopreneurship. Aptisi Transactions on Technopreneurship (ATT), 7(2), 650–662. https://doi.org/10.34306/att.v7i2.620
Tran, D. D., Phan, T. T., Vu, T. N. Q., La, T. D., & Pham, V. K. (2024). Digital competence of lecturers and its impact on student learning value in higher education. Heliyon, 10(17), e37318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37318
Uren, V., & Edwards, J. S. (2023). Technology readiness and the organizational journey towards AI adoption: An empirical study. International Journal of Information Management, 68, 102588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2022.102588
Wahid, S. H. (2024). Exploring the intersection of Islam and digital technology: A bibliometric analysis. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, 101085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101085
Wang, S., Wang, F., Zhu, Z., Wang, J., Tran, T., & Du, Z. (2024). Artificial intelligence in education: A systematic literature review. Expert Systems with Applications, 252(Part A), 124167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2024.124167
Wang, X., & Cheng, Z. (2020). Cross-sectional studies: Strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations. Chest, 158(1, Suppl), S65–S71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012
Weinhandl, R., Helm, C., Andic, B., Große, C. S., Mayrhofer, J., & Baldinger, S. (2025). Unpacking teachers’ cognitive engagement strategies with technology by employing the ICAP-TS. Computers and Education Open, 8, 100259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2025.100259
Wiziack, J. C., & dos Santos, V. M. P. D. (2021). Evaluating an integrated cognitive competencies model to enhance teachers’ application of technology in large-scale educational contexts. Heliyon, 7(1), e05928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e05928
Zamiri, M., & Esmaeili, A. (2024). Strategies, Methods, and Supports for Developing Skills within Learning Communities: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Administrative Sciences, 14(9), 231. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090231
Zapf, A., Wiessner, C., & König, I. R. (2024). Regression analyses and their particularities in observational studies—part 32 of a series on evaluation of scientific publications. Deutsches Arzteblatt international, 121(4), 128–134. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.m2023.0278
Zhao, Y., Pugh, K., Sheldon, S., & Byers, J. L. (2002). Conditions for classroom technology innovations. Teachers College Record, 104(3), 482–515. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9620.00170
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Muhammad Kashif Majeed, Tunku Badariah Ahamad
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright Notice
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under an Attribution-Share-Alike (CC BY-SA) license. that allows others to Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format, Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
This work is licensed under a Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0).
EDUCARE: Journal of Primary Education
Published by Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Kiai Haji Achmad Siddiq State Islamic University of Jember, East Java, Indonesia
1.png)
